World Religions Exam Preparations

Question: Were the Founders of World Religions perceived to be anti-establishment figures of their day?

I would agree to a large extent that the founders of World Religions were anti-establishment figures of their day. In my attempt to demonstrate this, we will look at the claims, teachings and social circles of Jesus Christ and Siddhartha Gautama.

Jesus can be thought of as an anti-establishment Figure during His time when we examine His claims. He lived and grew up in Israel, where the state religion was Judaism. The Jews worship a monothestic God who is highly revered and feared. It is in their culture to keep a safe distance from association with the holy God for fear of being struck dead. However, Jesus portrayed Himself as One who has a close relationship with God and even addressed God as Abba(Father). He even claimed oneness with God and claimed to forgive the sins of individuals, which can only be done in God's authority. In fact, His claims were so threatening to the Jewish community that the Rabbis called it blasphemy. Jesus was eventually crucified and killed temporarily for these claims.

In comparison, although Siddhartha Gautama did not claim to be the Brahman or the underlying reality of all, his claims can be seen as anti-establishmental to the Hindu community too. Gautama lived in a time where Hinduism was prevalent in India. One of the Hindu beliefs is samsara, where individuals are trapped in the evil cycle of life and suffering. Pious Hindus sought ways to escape samsara and to attain salvation by their union with Brahman. Some believed that the fulfillment of one's duty or dharma was the key; others thought that ascetism was the way; and still others claimed that scholarlistic studies of Hindu doctrines will lead to salvation. However, the Gautama Buddha (after his enlightenment) claimed that neither the fulfillment of dharma, nor leading an ascetic life led him to the truth he was seeking. He claimed to have seen the light, to have been enlightened, and he even went on to teach the four noble truths, and the highly developed eight fold paths.

Siddhartha Gautama can also be perceived as an anti-establishment figure when one looks at him through the lens of his teachings. Fundamental to the Hindu faith is the concept of atman(soul). Hindus believe that upon the onset of physical death, the atman of the deceased leaves the body. If the deceased had been a pious Hindu, practicing the disciplines of meditation, detachment and moral discipline, the atman may fuse with Brahman and the deceased thus attains salvation from samsara. If not, the atman is reincarnated into other forms of life, depending on one's karma. However, Siddhartha Gautama taught that nothing is eternal, change is the only constant, and there is no such thing as atman. His theory of anatman(no self) was radical and a direct opposition to the Hinduism.

Jesus' teachings can also be interpreted as anti-establishment to the norms too. The Pharisees or Jewish teachers came out with a highly developed interpretation of the Torah which burdened the people. John the baptist preached a message of judgement and destruction which further disturbed the people. These teachers can be thought of as emphasising on the 'dos and don'ts' of Jewish living. However, Jesus preached a message of love. He taught that repentance is made possible because of God's great love for humanity. He even went on to claim that He was God's demonstration of love to mankind. His emphasis on love attracted the crowds, which made the Jewish leaders jealous and fearful of Him. They thought of Him as an anti-establishment figure that would threaten the stability of their positions and the security of the Jews.

Finally, Jesus' anti-establishment sentiments can also be traced by his choice of friends. His social circle was mainly made up from the marginalized and outcasts of his day. These included the sick, the poor, the tax collectors, the Gentiles (non-Jews) and those who were labelled 'sinners' by the Pharisees. He taught that their realization of the true situation in life was more valuable than the Pharisee's apparent keeping of the Law. He also extended his teachings regardless of gender too. Mary, Martha and the Samaritan woman were examples of His female friends. During a time of gender discrimination, where double standards of morality were applied to men and women, Jesus taught his disciples respect for women.

Similarly, Gautama Buddha's inclusion of all humanity can be thought of as an anti-establishment to the Hindu culture. The hierarchial caste system in India provided a social structure for society and gave a sense of identity to the Indians. However, it also casued many individuals to be ostracized; the untouchables or Dalits were marginalized and oppressed. Gautama taught that there is a Buddha in every individual, and all humanity regardless of race or even caste, is eligible to become awaken. This was a radical teaching that threatened to tear the very fabric of the Indian society apart. Most Indians, even to this day, would not think of the Dalits as an equal to themselves.

Although Gautama Buddha's and Jesus Christ's claims, teachings, and social circles demonstrates that they were anti-establishment figures during their time, it is good to note that they did not challenge all the fundamental beliefs of their respective background faiths. For example, Gautama accepted the Hindu doctrine of Brahman, and he did not reject samsara too. In fact, these two dogmas were included in his teachings. In a similar fashion, Jesus did not reject the notion of monotheism, nor did He reject the Torah. He even said that He did not come to abolish the Law, but to fulfill it.

As demonstrated above in the claims, teachings and social circles of Jesus Christ and Siddhartha Gautama, the founders of World Religions were anti-establishment figures of their day, to a large extent.



Question: What role does the notion of sacrifice have to play in world religions?

Sacrifice is a major tenet in many world religions. To demonstrate the centrality of sacrifice, we shall examine its influence and the role it plays in two major faiths in today’s context: Christianity and Hinduism. Three aspects of sacrifice will be focused on, namely ritual sacrifice, personal sacrifice, and altruistic sacrifice.

Ritual sacrifice is perceived to be a means by which pious Hindus can connect to the ultimate reality or Brahman. The Vedas, a collection of hymns, contains precise instructions for the proper conduct of ritual sacrifices and information about the deities invoked or involved during sacrifices. Vedic tradition has it that the individual sacrifice is focused primarily on one particular deity whose response is sought. Examples of sacrifices recorded in the Vedas vary in scale, ranging from the daily Agnihotra, or the pouring of ghee into the domestic hearth to the horse sacrificed in celebration of a new king’s reign, or Ashvamedha.

Ritual sacrifice has an important role in the practice of Christianity too. The Christian community, despite the schisms between Catholics and Protestants, all acknowledge Israel as the chosen nation to demonstrate God’s love for humanity. A major feature of being Jewish is circumcision, a physical, yet symbolic, ritual that was instituted to set the Jews apart. Another sacrifice that strongly influenced Christianity today would be the ritual sacrifice of lambs for the atonement of sins. The High Priest of Israel would enter the temple on a yearly basis to offer the sacrificial lamb on behalf of the nation. These ritual sacrifices can also be perceived as a precursor to the other facets of sacrifice.

Personal sacrifice also plays an important role in Hinduism. To a layperson, right action or dharma, is the fulfilment of one’s personal religious duty, as determined by one’s social status and stage in life. However, dharma does not take into consideration of one’s personality and interests. To practice dharma, in a sense, is to restrict the individual to certain behaviours and ambitions that are deemed acceptable to the caste only. To the Hindu clerics, asceticism, a common form of yoga, is a spiritual discipline to attain unity with Brahman and escape from samsara. The denial of choice and food can also be perceived as a form of sacrifice for the Hindus.

Personal sacrifice is also observed in Christianity. As a mirror to circumcision and the notion of being set apart, Christians are called to imitate Jesus’ example by ‘taking up the Cross and following him’. Romans chapter 12 in the Bible records that notion whereby Christians are commanded to offer their lives as living sacrifices for the glory of God. These individuals are invited to give up their individual rights and love each other unconditionally. As Dietrich Bonhoeffer said, “When Jesus calls a man, He calls him to come and die.”

Finally, we examine the notion of sacrifice through the lens of altruism. The Bhagavad Gita records the story of Arjuna and Krishna. Krishna urged Arjuna to go into battle, in fulfilment of his dharma, although his enemies were his family, relatives and teachers. Krishna says in Book 3, verse 25 of the Gita that “as the ignorant act with attachment to actions, Arjuna, so wise men should act with detachment to preserve the world”. The notion of sacrificing one self, including the emotions of heartache, for the sake of a greater cause is evident in the Gita.

Christianity has its very foundation on the spirit of altruism. The Bible records that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, mirroring the sacrificial lamb in Israel’s time, died on the Cross for the atonement of sins for humanity. Also, most of his 12 disciples died a martyr’s death for spreading the gospel. In a similar fashion, Christians today are called to imitate Christ’s example as a response to the love he demonstrated on the Cross.

In conclusion, as demonstrated in the facets of ritual sacrifice, personal sacrifice and altruistic sacrifice, the notion of sacrifice plays a central role in world religions today.



Question: Compare the soteriological views of at least two faiths we have studied in this module.

Buddhism and Judaism, like most religions, are often perceived to be the ultimate reality that matters most and this perception often gives rise to salvation from the present situations. In this essay, I shall attempt to demonstrate that there are general similarities between the soteriological views of the two faiths, but they differ on the exact details about soteriology. Buddhism and Judaism are remarkably similar on who can be saved, where does salvation occur, and why does humanity need it. However, they differ on the grounds of what does salvation mean, when does it occur and most importantly, how does one attain it.

Who?

Both Buddhist and Jewish theologies will agree that salvation is available for all, regardless of race, gender, or any other social classifications one may think of. Siddhartha Gautama taught that all forms of life have a Buddha nature within them and all that is required to attain salvation is to awake that nature within us. Jewish teachings hold that all humanity is created in the image of the Monotheistic God who loves them, and desires their salvation. Jews are called to be witnesses of God’s love and goodness, to testify it to the rest of the world.

Where?

Similarly, both Buddhists and Jews believe in the existence of another realm, a spiritual one outside our present reality. Although enlightenment can occur anywhere, transcending any national borders or geographical limits, the individual enters nirvana upon the attainment of Buddhahood. In the same way, Jews believe that humans can live on two planes of existence – namely heaven and earth. Pious living in this world is preparation for life of the world to come. Both nirvana and the Jewish heaven are similar too, also, in the sense that both are beyond all mental and linguistic constructs.

Why?

Finally, Buddhism and Judaism are both faiths that acknowledge the depravity of this present world. Buddhism, deeply rooted in Hinduism, accepts the tragic makeup of samsara, the cyclic nature of life and suffering. The faith offers a form of moksha, release, from this evil cycle. In comparison, Judaism also recognizes the wickedness of the present age. Jewish tradition has it that Adam and Eve fell from grace by willfully disobeying God. Their sinful nature has since then been inherited by all humanity and thus explaining the suffering in today’s world.

What?

Having explored the similarities between the soteriological views of Buddhism and Judaism, we now discuss the differences. Buddhism defines soteriology as the attainment of liberation from samsara through the awakening of the innate Buddha nature. Also, Siddhartha Gautama taught the doctrine of no self, where individuals are the sum of their choices or karma and there are no souls within. On the other hand, while Judaism defines soteriology similarly as the liberation from the fallen world and the entrance into a Messianic Kingdom, Jews believe that it is the soul that enters heaven.

When?

The attainment of liberation from samsara through the awakening of the innate Buddha nature has to occur with the onset of death and the individual enters nirvana. However, Jewish soteriology can be thought of as occurring in the present day and afterlife. Yahweh, the Jewish God, promises physical blessings to the Jews should they choose to obey his commands. Obedience to the Torah also leads to the ultimate salvation, entrance to paradise, when the final judgment arrives.

How?

Finally, Judaism and Buddhism differ on the methods of attaining salvation. Buddhists believe that meditation and the observance of the 4 noble truths and the 8-way paths will give the individual good karma, which will lead him or her to nirvana. However, a pious Buddhist would probably have to renounce his or her family, like Siddhartha Gautama did, to spend most of their time meditating and immersing themselves into the truth. On the other hand, Jews believe that pious obedience to the Torah will lead to salvation and within the Torah are commandments that are mostly family and socially oriented, like loving your neighbor as yourself and leaving part of one’s harvest for the poor. Jews tend to be more collective in nature than the individualistic Buddhists.